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Socrates -

The founder of Western philosophy, Socrates (470–399 BCE), famed through the work of his students, primarily Plato, was a polarizing individual in ancient Greece.

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Unique style -

As a teacher famed for claiming that he both knew nothing important nor ever taught anything, he used a method of deep intellectual engagement through a unique style of questioning.

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Questions and answers -

The format, which consisted of a dialogue shaped by questions and answers, sought to examine an issue holistically. Often, this would lead to a deadlock of sorts, in which a fixed conclusion could never be reached and the basis of an argument would have to be reexamined.

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Ignorance -

Socrates’ declaration of his own ignorance was something he sought to inspire in others; when we recognize how much we don’t know (or that we truly know nothing), we can begin the process of philosophy.

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Controversial figure -

He was controversial in Athenian society, as his form of confrontational questioning often left people feeling foolish or embarrassed, as the format quickly unveiled shortcomings in logic.

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Sentenced to death -

Known for his disdain of authority, Socrates was sentenced to death by poison on charges of “impiety” and “corrupting the youth.”

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Enduring legacy -

Despite his enduring legacy, what makes Socrates particularly unique as a philosopher is that he never authored a text. Meaning everything we know about his teachings comes from the accounts of his students and his students’ students.

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Literary genre -

The texts produced by his students are written in a form of dialogue between Socrates and his students. In fact, the logos sokratikos ("Socratic dialogues") became its own literary genre.

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Fictionalized or historical records? -

There is widespread debate over whether authors like Plato accurately recorded their dialogues with Socrates or merely fictionalized dialogues that mimicked Socrates’ style.

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The 'truth' -

Nonetheless, the Socratic method has retained its value and insight for over 2,000 years in efforts to arrive at the ‘truth’ of a particular matter.

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Questioning an issue -

The principle of the method is to question an issue from various perspectives. In the dialogue, no one is the ‘expert’ or the ‘truth keeper.’ Rather, each participant is an act of a shared dialogue.

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Thought-provoking questions -

One party, in the context of the classroom, usually a role retained for the teacher, poses thought-provoking questions. Students respond with questions of their own. This dialogue goes back and forth.

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Engaging complexities -

The purpose is not to arrive at some fixed conclusion, but rather to engage the complexities of a particular issue, highlight the uncertainties, and face the difficult aspects.

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Open-ended dialogue -

The goal isn’t to intimidate either party, but rather to have an open-ended dialogue. No one knows where the questioning will lead, but rather allow for an in-depth exploration of a matter.

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Specific explanations -

The first step is to ask clarifying questions. This can include asking for specific definitions or explanations of terms or concepts.

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Contradictions or gaps -

Then, Socrates would ask a series of questions attempting to identify contradictions or gaps in reasoning in the respondent's answers. This step often provokes people to reconsider their own positions.

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Encourages critical self-reflection -

Identifying inconsistencies in people’s arguments and logic is not intended to provoke an ‘A-ha!’ or ‘gotcha’ moment, but to encourage critical and independent self-reflection.

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University of Connecticut -

In the University of Connecticut’s guide on how to engage in Socratic questioning, they define six categories of questions: clarification questions, assumption questions, probing questions, implication and consequences questions, viewpoint and perspective questions, and questioning the question.

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Clarification questions -

Clarification questions include examples such as: Why do you say that? Could you expand further on that point?

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Assumption questions -

Assumption questions may include: How could you verify that assumption? Why would this assumption be made?

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Probing questions -

Probing questions include: What other information do we need? What reasoning did you use to come to that conclusion?

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Implication and consequences questions -

Implication and consequences questions may include: What are you implying? What generalizations can be made?

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Viewpoint and perspective questions -

Viewpoint and perspective questions can be along the lines of: How would X group respond to this and why? Who benefits from this conclusion?

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Questioning the question -

Questioning the question questions (that's a mouthful!) may include: What is the purpose of this question? Why is this question important?

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Apology -

In Plato’s 'Apology,' he illustrates how this approach exposes gaps in people’s thinking and logic to help individuals better understand their own arguments.

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Inspiring generations -

Socrates’ method went on to inspire generations of philosophers. Thomas Aquinas (pictured), René Descartes, and John Locke are just a few examples of famed philosophers who used methods that share similarities with this form of questioning.

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Method applied in many areas -

The method has also been applied in the context of law, psychology, and politics. Engaging in cross-examination, used in the interrogation of witnesses within court settings, also has its roots in Socratic thinking.

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Any problem-solving context -

The Socratic method can be employed in any problem-solving context. Two parties are not even necessary to engage in the activity.

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Method conducted on Socrates himself -

Socrates, famed for his quote “the unexamined life is not worth living,” conducted the method on himself, constantly seeking greater insight into his own rationality.

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Critiques -

There are critiques of this method, however. Particularly in contexts where there is a clear power dynamic that may allow for questioning to not just be confrontational, but facilitates belittling interactions.

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Frustration -

For others, participants may be left confused or frustrated, perhaps even unclear as to how to further engage in discussion. For those seeking concrete outcomes, this method may also leave discussion participants unsatisfied, as the objective is to provoke critical thought rather than offer clear solutions.

Sources: (Britannica) (University of Connecticut) (Colorado State University) (The University of Chicago)

See also: The most significant schools of philosophy

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