Lesser-known facts about the father of modern science
Meanwhile, the brothers had negotiated an advantageous peace treaty with the Eastern Roman Empire, which was concluded in 435 at the Roman city of Margus (present-day Požarevac in Serbia).
Atilla, commonly referred to as Attila the Hun, was leader of the nomadic people of Central Asia known as the Huns. He was also ruler of the Hunnic Empire from 434 to 453 CE.
The deaths of both Octar and Ruga in 434 left their nephews in control of the united Hun tribes. By now Atilla and Bleda had mastered archery, sword fighting, and lasso use, and how to ride and care for horses.
In June 451, the opposing forces finally clashed at the famous Battle of the Catalaunian Plains at a site around modern-day Champagne-Ardenne, northeastern France. After fierce fighting, in which the Visigoth king was killed and most of the Western Roman army destroyed, Attila withdrew and shortly afterward retired from Gaul. This was his first and only battlefield defeat.
Born north of the Danube sometime in the early 5th century, Atilla, together with his brother Bleda, had inherited the Hunnic Empire from their uncles, Octar and Ruga.
A merciless warrior, Octar was the king of the western wing of the Huns who expanded the empire into Germany. The equally fearsome Ruga was the eastern overlord who waged war against the Eastern Roman Empire.
Never one to dwell on failure, Attila turned his attention to Italy and in 452 attacked several cities including Aquileia, Patavium (Padua), Verona, Brixia (Brescia), Bergomum (Bergamo), and Mediolanum (Milan).
While Pope Leo I deserves credit for persuading the Huns to halt their campaign, the fact is that to advance on Rome would have required supplies that were not available in Italy, with most crops devastated by famine in 451 and only just recovering. It was more profitable for Attila to conclude peace and retreat to his homeland. Well, almost.
Early in their rule, Attila and Bleda allied with the Western Roman general Flavius Aetius. From 436 to 437, the trio destroyed the Burgundian kingdom (today modern-day Poland).
Attila had one last gasp in Gaul when he set his sights on Paris. According to cherished legend, the city was spared invasion after Genevieve, one of the two patron saints of Paris, prayed and saved the city from being destroyed by the Huns.
Then in 445, Attila became the sole ruler of the Hunnic Empire after Bleda died. Some historians believe Attila had his brother assassinated. Two years later, in 447, Attila the Hun launched his most savage war on the Eastern Roman Empire yet.
The Romans kept their part of the bargain, and the Huns remained out of Roman sight for the next few years. But the peace would not last for long.
The Hunnic Empire was now at the height of its power and reach, with Attila holding sway over Scythia, Germania, and Scandinavia. But Attila still wasn't satisfied and the megalomaniac's next great campaign was the invasion of Gaul in 451.
Instead, a renewed blood lust in 453 prompted Attila to plan an attack on the Eastern Empire.
In 441 on the pretext that the Romans hadn't returned some of the Hunnic fugitives and failed to pay the sums stipulated in the treaty, the Huns launched a heavy assault on the Danubian frontier of the Eastern Empire.
Attila was all set to head further south towards Rome, but by this point disease and starvation had taken hold in Attila's camp, thus hindering his war efforts.
With a savagery that prompted the Romans to describe their foe as "barbarians," the Huns decimated the enemy armies at the Utus River and then at Chersonesus. Attila's forces went on to sack more than 70 cities in the Balkans and penetrated deep into Greece, and were only stopped at Thermopylae, where Attila found his advance blocked by unidentified defenders.
Justa Grata Honoria desperately wanted to escape an arranged marriage to an aristocrat that her brother was forcing on her. She begged Attila to intervene, sending him a message and a ring, which the warrior king interpreted as a betrothal.
The intervention by Pope Leo I in 452 is also credited with halting Attila the Hun in his murderous tracks.
Attila conveniently sidestepped his previously cordial relationship with the Western Roman Empire and his friendship with general Aetius after Princess Honoria, sister of the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III, appealed to Attila for help.
But before he could sharpen his blade and pull on his armor, Attila the Hun died in his sleep, apparently from a brain hemorrhage brought on after a heavy feast and drinking on his wedding night to new bride Ildico. He was succeeded by his sons, who divided his empire among them and made peace with the Romans.
Sources: (History) (Britannica) (BBC) (Encyclopedia.com) (Livius.org)
See also: Lands the Romans failed to conquer
A third peace treaty was drawn up, with yet more gold finding its way into the Huns' coffers and Attila warning of harsh penalties for the Romans should they fail to pay what they already owed.
The pope's pleas worked, with the Huns turning their backs on the eternal city in retreat.
Once again the reasons given revolved around the supposed non-payment of subsidies, this time apparently withheld by the new emperor, Marcian, who had refused to pay the amount agreed upon by his predecessor, Theodosius II.
The terms of the treaty dictated the return of several Hun renegades who had taken refuge within the Eastern Roman Empire, plus an agreement to pay Attila and Bleda 700 pounds (317 kg) of gold per year.
Full of bluster and false modesty, Attila promptly claimed Honoria as his wife (he already had several) and demanded half the Western Empire as her dowry.
The pontiff met Attila at Mincio in the vicinity of Mantua and obtained from him the promise that he would withdraw from Italy and negotiate peace with the emperor.
The Huns reached as far south as Constantinople, sacking several large cities along the way. The Roman emperor Theodosius I, unable to make effective armed resistance, admitted defeat and was forced into a new treaty. The Huns would receive a total of 8,100 pounds (3,674 kg) of gold and the missing fugitives. A fragile peace once again ensued.
Their empire stretched from the Rhine region to the borders of Sassanian Iran in the Caucasus. Attila and Bleda were both intelligent and well versed in military and diplomatic tactics. But it was Attila who was prone to unpredictable and violent bursts of anger.
Few historical figures deserve the sobriquet "barbarian" more than Attila the Hun. The ruler of the Hunnic Empire was also labeled by the Romans as Flagellum Dei, or the "scourge of God," for his brutality and alarming success in sacking Roman cities. Yet Attila was an educated man, likely versed in Greek and Latin, and modest in his dress. But his propensity for violence is legendary: this was someone whose intolerance towards enemies on the battlefield led history to describe Attila as one of the greatest barbarian rulers. So who was this ruler of the Huns, and why is his legacy so despicable?
Click through the following gallery and revisit the horrible life of the leader of the Huns.
Emperor Valentinian III refused and after Attila had already entered Gaul, Aetius reached an agreement with the Visigothic king, Theodoric I, to combine their forces in resisting the Huns.
The fearsome life of Attila the Hun
Learn more about the fearsome leader of the Huns
LIFESTYLE History
Few historical figures deserve the sobriquet "barbarian" more than Attila the Hun. The ruler of the Hunnic Empire was also labeled by the Romans as Flagellum Dei, or the "scourge of God," for his brutality and alarming success in sacking Roman cities. Yet Attila was an educated man, likely versed in Greek and Latin, and modest in his dress. But his propensity for violence is legendary: this was someone whose intolerance towards enemies on the battlefield led history to describe Attila as one of the greatest barbarian rulers. So who was this ruler of the Huns, and why is his legacy so despicable?
Click through the following gallery and revisit the horrible life of the leader of the Huns.