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Russia clashed with the Ottomans over a period of 500 years, fighting each other in 10 wars between 1568 and 1878, the Crimean War (1853–1856), and the First World War (1914–1918).
The Russo-Turkish Wars of the 17th century were especially brutal, as Russia waged war against the Ottoman Empire in a costly and ultimately fruitless attempt to establish a warm-water port on the Black Sea. Russia suffered defeat in Crimea at the hands of the Ottomans and their allies, which included Britain and France—a conflict that resulted in huge loss of life on both sides. The final confrontation between the two powers was as part of the Great War.
Relations between Russia and Sweden had already reached a low point during the Middle Ages, when the two rivals engaged in a series of military confrontations known as the Russo-Swedish Wars (1495–97, 1554–57 and 1590–95). But it was the Great Northern War (1700–1721) that the Czardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in Northern, Central, and Eastern Europe.
Russia and Sweden's costly encounters were essentially for dominance of the Baltic Sea. The decisive Battle of Ratan, fought during the Russian-Swedish War of 1808–09, also known as the Finnish War, saw Sweden cede Finland to the Russian Empire. This conflict, the last time a battle took place within Swedish territory, effectively ended hostilities between the two powers.
Relations between Denmark and Sweden span a long history of interaction, not all of it friendly. The two Scandinavian kingdoms were at odds with each other as early as 1026, with at least 11 confrontations recorded up to the late 15th century, including the Dano-Swedish War (1470–1471) and the Northern Seven Years' War (1563-70).
Throughout much of the 16th century the Ottomans prevailed, until 1618 when Persians forces were victorious. The War of 1623–1639 is significant in that it ended with the Treaty of Zuhab, and fixed present Turkey–Iran and Iraq–Iran borders. It was only in 1823 that a final and lasting peace was agreed.
Rivalry and distrust between the two nations continued to simmer until tensions boiled over with the onset of the Second Sino-Japanese War, a dreadful conflict fought from 1937 to 1945 as part of the Second World War. Today, the war remains a major point of contention and resentment between China and Japan.
The epic naval battles that mostly constituted the four Anglo-Dutch Wars of the mid-17th and late 18th century were the result of intense rivalry between England and the Dutch Republic over trade and overseas colonies.
The Fourth Anglo-Dutch War (1780–1784) saw the republic dealt a fatal blow by a now superior British naval fleet. The war settled the decline of the Dutch Empire and further cemented Great Britain as the leading commercial power.
The end of the Second World War ushered in the Cold War, a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies. This ideological and political rivalry spilled over into a dangerous arms race, exemplified by the Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962.
Locked in rivalry throughout the second half of the 20th century, the United States and the USSR also engaged in a space race, ultimately won in 1969 with America putting the first human being on the Moon. The Cold War effectively ended with the collapse of Communism in 1991, although it continues to influence world affairs. Meanwhile, the US and the Russian Federation still eye each other up with mistrust and cynicism.
Sources: (History) (Oxford Reference) (National Army Museum)
Rome's veneer was of an empire triumphal overseas, crushing enemies and claiming new lands. But its biggest threat came from within—a series of internal conflicts that began with a succession of civil wars in the first century BCE that ultimately brought down the Roman Republic.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Polish-Lithuania Commonwealth was a major power in European politics, a fact that irked Moscow. Diplomatic relations were at best fraught. But conflict between Russia and Poland goes all the way back to the 10th and 11th centuries, beginning with the Polish-Kievan Rus' conflicts (980–1096).
The first war began in 264 BCE when Rome tried to stop Carthage from expanding into Sicily. While the losses on both sides were staggering, Rome eventually emerged victorious. The second war broke out in 218 BCE when Hannibal invaded Italy. The Carthaginian general famously crossed the Alps with his army in a failed attempt to take Rome. The Third Punic War, fought between 149 and 146 BCE, was decisive. It ended with a Carthaginian defeat and the surrender of the Carthaginian Army.
The Anglo-Scottish Wars were a series of military conflicts between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.
Scotland had won a famous victory over the English at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314. But more bad blood was to boil over as the so-called Wars of Scottish Independence intensified. Essentially a series of campaigns fought fiercely for control of Anglo-Saxon England, these wars typified the bitter rivalry that festered between the two nations. The Battle of Neville's Cross in 1346 saw the Scots routed and the Scottish King David II captured. The Wars of Independence ended with the Treaty of Berwick—a truce of sorts—signed in 1357.
Two of history's greatest arch-rivals, the Ottoman Empire led by Suleiman the Magnificent, and the Safavid Empire led by Tahmasp I, first came to blows during the Ottoman-Safavid War of 1532–1555. It marked the beginning of multiple wars waged across three centuries.
The Ottoman–Habsburg Wars were fought from the 16th to the 18th centuries between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg monarchy. At the time, these were two of the most powerful entities in the early modern world.
The Habsburgs and Ottomans spilled blood across the Mediterranean, Balkans, and Hungary. In fact with the conquest of Hungary, the Muslim Ottomans were on the very doorstep of the Catholic Habsburgs. Vienna twice nearly fell to the Ottomans before the Hapsburgs regrouped under the leadership of Prince Eugene of Savoy. The last major conflict ended in 1791 with the signing of the Treaty of Sistova.
The rivalry between the Republic of Genoa and the Republic of Venice for trade supremacy at sea saw these two wealthy and powerful republics engage in four major conflicts over a 125-year period.
The two maritime powers mostly met at sea, in the Mediterranean, and as far away as the Bosphorus and the Black Sea. These violent naval clashes resulted in the loss of hundreds of vessels and thousands of lives. Even during periods of peace, incidents of piracy and other minor outbreaks of violence between the two trading communities were commonplace. The Treaty of Turin (1381) brought an end to the formal hostilities, with the entire campaign proving inconclusive.
Inevitably war broke out between India and Pakistan, not once but three times: in 1947, 1965, and 1971. The war pictured, fought from December 3–16, 1971, between East Pakistan and India against West Pakistan resulted in the secession of East Pakistan and becoming the independent nation of Bangladesh. Today, India and Pakistan still eye each other with suspicion, with both nations involved sporadically in localized conflicts and military standoffs.
The rivalry between the French and the English can be traced back to the Norman conquests in the 11th century. In 1066, William I routed the English at the Battle of Hastings. William the Conqueror, as he was known, became the first Norman king of England. He reigned until his death in 1087.
While the partition of British India in 1947 and subsequent creation of the dominions of India and Pakistan saw the dissolution of the British Raj in the Indian subcontinent, it also marked the beginning of widespread antagonism between the two nations.
Other major conflicts included the Second Northern War (1655-60)— during which the modern borders of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden were set—and the Great Northern War (1700-21). The last conflicts took place during the Napoleonic Wars.
The centuries that followed saw Russia and the commonwealth at each other's throats. Notable confrontations include the Livonian War (1577–82), Polish Muscovite War (1605–18), Russo-Polish War (1654–67), and the Partitions of Poland (1772–95). The modern era was witness to the Polish-Soviet War (1919–20) and the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939. Poland finally wrestled free from communist control following the Revolutions of 1989 and 1990.
This internal strife began with what's known as Sulla's civil war, fought between the Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla and his opponents, the Cinna-Marius faction, in the years 83–82 BCE. Romans fighting Romans continued with Caesar's Civil War (49–45 BCE), Wars of the Second Triumvirate (44–36 BCE), Year of the Five Emperors (193 CE), Crisis of the Third Century (235–284 CE), and the Civil Wars of Tetrarchy (306–324 CE).
It was perhaps inevitable that China and Japan would end up fighting each other. Before the 19th century China was seen as the dominant force. But by 1868, Japan was clearly flexing its muscle. Matters came to a head with the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), fought primarily over influence in Korea.
Rome and Carthage were two of antiquity's greatest superpowers. Their intense rivalry was such that a conflict between the two civilizations became inevitable. This mutual antagonism eventually erupted
History has recorded some truly intense and consequential rivalries between states and countries. Political, ideological, and religious differences, expansionist ambitions, trade and commercial interests... all have been blamed for numerous wars and conflicts stemming from bitter jealously and antagonism shown by opposing nations. Indeed, some of bloodiest battles ever staged have their roots in mistrust and envy, resentment fueled by greed and a lust for glory. So, what are some of the most infamous rivalries of yesteryear, and how did they shape world history?
Click through and find out how rival nations resolved their differences.
Historic rivalries that shaped the world
Conflicts of consequence
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History has recorded some truly intense and consequential rivalries between states and countries. Political, ideological, and religious differences, expansionist ambitions, trade and commercial interests... all have been blamed for numerous wars and conflicts stemming from bitter jealously and antagonism shown by opposing nations. Indeed, some of bloodiest battles ever staged have their roots in mistrust and envy, resentment fueled by greed and a lust for glory. So, what are some of the most infamous rivalries of yesteryear, and how did they shape world history?
Click through and find out how rival nations resolved their differences.