The lurking hypothetical planet
The Trojan War is one of the most important events in Greek mythology. But did it actually happen? The conflict has been narrated through many works of Greek literature, most notably Homer's Iliad—an epic poem that depicts significant events in the final weeks of the 10-year siege of Troy. Pictured is a battle scene from the Iliad.
The Odyssey, also attributed to Homer, follows the Greek hero Odysseus, king of Ithaca, and his journey home after the Trojan War. The Iliad and the Odyssey were composed 400 years after the supposed event. For most ancient Greeks, however, the Trojan War was much more than a myth. It was an epoch-defining moment in their distant past.
For decades, scholars differed on whether Troy actually existed. This was important to ascertain because, according to the narrative, the ancient Greek city served as the location of the infamous siege. After many decades of scientific and literary study by specialists, the ruins of Hisarlik in Anatolia in present-day Turkey were definitively identified as being those of Troy.
Troy was repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt during its 4,000 years of occupation. Excavations have revealed nine archaeological layers, each corresponding to a city built on the ruins of the previous.
The ruins that correspond to the Trojan War period are known as Troy VI and represent a timeframe of 1750 BCE to 1300 BCE—the middle to late Bronze Age. Troy VI is very likely the Troy of Homer's Iliad when the city was at its zenith. The location is today a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
In what became known as the Judgment of Paris, the three goddesses agreed to have Paris of Troy choose the fairest one. The prince chose Aphrodite. The scene is recreated in this fresco, uncovered at Pompeii and now on display at the Naples National Archaeological Museum in Italy.
Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite—seen here in a 2nd-century CE Roman mosaic—each laid claim to the gilded fruit.
A sequence of apparently unrelated events sparked the legendary conflict, beginning with a quarrel between the goddesses Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite. Eris, the goddess of strife and discord, was denied an invitation to the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. She turned up anyway, but when still refused admittance she raged and threw a golden apple amongst the goddesses inscribed "for the fairest."
As a token of her gratitude, Aphrodite rewarded Paris with Helen, the wife of Menelaus, King of Sparta.
Jilted and humiliated, Menelaus called on his brother Agamemnon, King of Mycenae, to launch an expedition to retrieve her. He signed off the directive by rallying other kings and princes of Greece and urging them to wage war upon Troy.
Agamemnon, large and powerful, and his younger brother Menelaus marched a mighty army against Troy. Agamemnon was joined by the Greek heroes Achilles, Odysseus, Nestor and Ajax. The astonishing Mask of Agamemnon (pictured), a gold funeral mask discovered at the ancient Greek site of Mycenae, is associated with the legend of Troy, though archaeologists believe the dazzling artifact predates the conflict by 300–400 years.
The greatest of all the Greek warriors, Achilles was feared and respected in equal measure. According to popular legend, Achilles was invulnerable in all of his body except for one heel. He's depicted on this amphora from the Etruscan city of Vulci, dated back to 445-440 BCE.
Answering Agamemnon's call to arms, a fleet of more than a thousand ships from throughout the Hellenic world crossed the Aegean Sea to lay siege to Troy.
Agamemnon's demand was simple: Helen's return by Priam, the Trojan king. Priam refused, and the siege of Troy began.
Leading the Trojans and their allies in the defense of Troy was Hector, the first-born son of King Priam and Queen Hecuba. His fighting prowess was admired by Greeks and his own people alike.
During a clash of the two sides outside the walls of Troy, Patroclus, the young cousin of Achilles, was killed by Hector. Enraged, the Greek warrior swore revenge.
More than 3,000 years after it was supposed to have taken place, there is still doubt as to whether or not the Trojan War actually happened. In Greek mythology, the Bronze Age-era war was a conflict between the kingdoms of Troy and Mycenaean Greece. The myth spawned legendary heroes such as Hector and Achilles, and Helen—the most beautiful woman in the world. And what about the Trojan Horse? But is there any fact in all this fiction?
Click through and read more about this epic encounter and the figures it embroiled.
After 10 years of war, the Greeks came up with an audacious plan. They decided to withdraw en masse, but not before hollowing out a huge wooden horse and leaving it outside the city gates. Unbeknown to the Trojans, who eagerly pulled the giant equine form into their city as a victory trophy, within its belly was hidden around 30 of the Achaeans' best warriors, led by Odysseus.
With the way wide open, Troy was summarily sacked. The Greeks entered the city in their thousands. What ensued was a massacre, with most of the sleeping population killed in their beds.
The bloodbath continued into the next day. Priam, Troy's monarch, was killed by Neoptolemus, son of Achilles.
Despite Greek success, the seemingly invincible Achilles lost his life, killed by an arrow shot by Paris that found its mark on Achilles' heel—the one area of his body that had not been lapped by the mysterious protective waters of the Styx river in which he was dipped as an infant by his mother, Thetis.
Achilles was slain by Paris. The god Apollo is said to have guided the arrow into his vulnerable spot, his heel. Paris is seen here in sculpture on the western pediment of the temple of Aphaia on the island of Aegina. The stonework dates back to c. 500 BCE.
And what of Helen of Troy, arguably the cause of the bloody conflict? After the death of Paris (killed later by Philoctetes, an Achaean hero-king), Helen returned to Sparta with Menelaus. By all accounts both were completely reconciled and enjoyed a harmonious married life.
The Trojan Horse is not mentioned in Homer's Iliad, with the poem ending before the war is concluded, and it is only briefly mentioned in the Odyssey.
Whether it took place or not, the Trojan War still fascinates. The famous horse is depicted on this mid-16th-century Italian earthenware plate. And today, a Trojan Horse is understood as anything that looks innocent but, once accepted, has power to harm or destroy. It also describes a type of malware that downloads onto a computer disguised as a legitimate program.
Meanwhile, the term Achilles heel references a vulnerability or weakness.
Sources: (Britannica) (BBC) (World History Encyclopedia) (The Metropolitan Museum of Art) (Ancient Literature) (British Museum)
Achilles, in a final act of merciless retribution, attached Hector's lifeless body to his chariot and drove his fallen enemy through the dust to the Achaeans' camp.
In one of the single most celebrated encounters of the Trojan War, Hector was called out by Achilles who challenged his foe to a single duel outside the gates of the besieged city. The Trojan, no match for the agile Achilles, was brutally slain.
Helen was either abducted by Paris or eloped with him, depending on which classical source you believe. Either way, her leaving Menelaus further fanned the flames of conflict.
During the night, the soldiers crept out of the horse and opened the gates for the rest of the Greek army, which had sailed back under the cover of darkness.
What really happened during the Trojan War?
Did this ancient conflict really take place?
LIFESTYLE History
More than 3,000 years after it was supposed to have taken place, there is still doubt as to whether or not the Trojan War actually happened. In Greek mythology, the Bronze Age-era war was a conflict between the kingdoms of Troy and Mycenaean Greece. The myth spawned legendary heroes such as Hector and Achilles, and Helen—the most beautiful woman in the world. And what about the Trojan Horse? But is there any fact in all this fiction?
Click through and read more about this epic encounter and the figures it embroiled.