Public opinion reflects new stance
Magic is a massively broad term used to describe a myriad of practices and beliefs that span centuries and continents. The further back in history you go, the harder it is to distinguish belief in magic and the beginnings of religions. But it's safe to say that belief in the supernatural in some form or another has been around for as long as humans have.
The Western view of magic almost certainly stems from the ancient, polytheistic beliefs and practices of the numerous pagan cultures that were once abundant across continental Europe and the British Isles.
After the dawn of Christianity, all sorts of things that didn't conform to the Church's worldview were labeled as magic. Things as simple as knowledge of medicinal plants, or non-Christian phrases of good luck, fell into the newly-invented boxes of "magic," "witchcraft," or "sorcery."
For millennia, these polytheistic beliefs, folk religions, and local ceremonious traditions easily coexisted with their various neighboring civilizations that practiced more structured and centralized forms of spirituality and ceremony. However, once the Catholic Church began to grow in size and strength, these local belief systems started to be seen as a threat.
When most people hear the word "heretic" today, it evokes visions of militant, blasphemous sinners. Historically, however, anyone in medieval Europe who didn't strictly follow the tenets of the Church and their feudal lords would be labeled a heretic, no matter how peacefully they tried to practice their ancestral beliefs. This included farmers blessing their fields with the name of a different god, midwives using folk medicines to either relieve pain or assist in abortions, and many other instances of people practicing traditions that were now considered to be "magic" or "heretical."
But there was some magic that served the Church's purposes, and also some individuals who found no reason the occult and the Church couldn't work in harmony. The Gnostics, for example, saw the arcane arts as a way to better understand the Christian God and form a closer relationship with one's spiritual side.
One of the oldest surviving leechbooks is the 'Lacnunga,' an Anglo-Saxon book of medicinal information and magical charms that dates back to around the 10th century CE. Written mostly in Old English and Latin, there are instructions for everything from delaying a birth to healing "a sudden, stabbing pain."
Much of early medieval magic was practiced with not much more than health care in mind. Midwives, folk doctors, and apothecaries in the early Middle Ages had an extensive bank of knowledge regarding the natural resources that surrounded them, and would often accompany their treatments with verbal charms and blessings, or prepare their tinctures and mixtures in ways that were thought to unlock the magical power within the ingredients.
Herbalists of this age would often be in possession of a "leechbook," essentially a magical recipe book. Inside the pages of a leechbook could be a directory of more than 400 plants, insects, and animal parts, with all of their magical and medicinal properties listed.
Astrology fell out of general practice for centuries after the fall of the Roman Empire, but once Islamic texts started to be translated and transported westward, it experienced a bit of a European comeback, despite being condemned by the Church. However, by the high Middle Ages, the Church had reversed their view, and it was in fact required by law that physicians of all sorts consulted the astral charts of their patients before making any sensitive decisions.
Midwives were frequently considered part of the occult community due to their heavy use of herbal remedies and, usually, their habit of prioritizing the safety of the mother over the survival of the child. Before the rise of the Church, it was common for midwives to use herbal tinctures to induce abortions in women who they believed would not survive childbirth. After the Church began to be more and more involved in what was previously seen as "women's business," abortion was criminalized and many midwives lost their jobs to be replaced by men who would ensure all pregnancies were carried out to term and that "witchcraft" played no part in the process.
This included the use of tarot cards, which, at the time, were indistinguishable from most playing cards. However, if one was caught using the cards for fortune telling, the death sentence was a common punishment.
Even within the Gnostic, Hermetic, and occult communities that practiced magic, there were differences and boundaries. Not all magic was considered good or acceptable, for instance. Good magic, or "white magic," included any sort of practice or ritual that was done out of selflessness or with concern for another, such as healing or birthing magic.
"Black magic," on the other hand, was any magic practiced out of malevolence or with the intent to harm. This included any sort of hex or curse, and anything like necromancy that was perceived as going against the laws of nature.
Maleficium was the blanket term used to describe the use of black magic and other harmful occult practices. Maleficium is an important term, as it is considered to be the primary practice of magicians called sorcerers, but not other practitioners such as wizards or witches.
Albertus Magnus was a Dominican friar during the early 13th century. Magnus was posthumously canonized for his influential work in theology, but it also became apparent in the decades after his death that he was likewise was an avid alchemist and magician, working entirely in secret. Legend has it that he was successful in creating the philosopher's stone, which is the primary ambition of every alchemist.
While astrology was eventually accepted into mainstream society in Western Europe, this wasn't the case in the Byzantine Empire to the east. In Constantinople and its surrounding territories, astrology was seen as going against the will of God and was vehemently prosecuted.
Divination, prophesizing, and fortune telling was a practice spread across both the heretic and Catholic worlds. However, only Church-sanctioned divination was acceptable. In some regions, like Saxony, anyone caught reading people's fortunes would be put to death.
A scribe by day but an immensely powerful alchemist and sorcerer by night, Frenchman Nicolas Flamel (1330-1418) was said to have unlocked the secret to the philosopher's stone, thus learning the secret to eternal life.
While the character of Merlin, of King Arthur fame, was proven to be purely fictional, he is based on a number of real historical figures. Most prominently borrowed from was Brythonic clairvoyant Myrddin Wyllt.
Another familiar Arthurian character and for her part completely fictional, Morgan le Fay was a sorceress who alternately worked with and against King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table. Among her other abilities, she was said to have been particularly skilled in the healing arts and was an excellent shapeshifter.
Wizards have appeared so often in fantasy entertainment since the 17th century that it is hard to imagine real individuals walking the earth going by that title. However, wizards aren't just for storybooks. There truly were people who considered themselves wizards, and they really did (or at least believed they did) practice the arcane arts.
The English scholar Michael Scot, who lived at the end of the 12th century, was said to be a powerful magician who not only had a host of spirits in his employ, but once also turned an entire group of witches to stone. Those witches-turned-stones can still be visited today in England, and are known as Long Meg and her Daughters.
Roger Bacon was a Franciscan friar of the Middle Ages who was considered one of the greatest wizards and masters of the occult to ever live. Among other magical achievements, he was said to have animated a giant bronze, mechanical head, and bestowed upon it the power of infinite knowledge.
Even the word "necromancy" can send shivers down one's spine. Necromancy is most commonly associated with bringing the dead back to life, usually for malicious purposes. But communicating with the dead and interactions with ghosts and spirits can also fall under this umbrella.
That being said, witches were prosecuted at far higher rates than their male counterparts. During the witch trials of the late Middle Ages and the early modern period, around 60,000 people were accused of witchcraft and sorcery. Historians estimate that 70% of those individuals were women.
One of the most famous magicians and occultists of the early modern period, Agrippa was a prolific writer on magical tradition, alchemy, and the like. He was widely respected during his life by fellow occultists, and was labeled a heretic by the Inquisition for his arcane acts.
Sources: (Ranker) (Listverse)
See also: Curious facts about witchcraft that will keep you spellbound
Distinguished as the founder of Prophetic Kabbalah, Abraham Abulafia was born in Spain somewhere near the beginning of the 13th century. Apart from his prophetic and apocalyptic visions, Abulafia gained notoriety for his alleged ability to diffuse his body into light and summon his second spirit, and a mystical act of divine conjuration.
Historically, sorcery and the sorcerers who practice it were exclusively up to no good. While witches could be either feared or respected by their community (excluding the Church, of course), those known as sorcerers were feared as practitioners of the dark arts, aiming to bring nothing but pain, suffering, and terror.
We've all heard countless stories of wizards (who were born as mere mortals but learned magic) and sorcerers (who were born with magic but had to learn to master it). Both were figures shut away in dark towers conducting arcane experiments, bringing objects to life and hexing their enemies. Pointy hats, magical staffs, enchantment scrolls—all these things are hearty food for the imagination, and most believe it ends there. But were there really magical practitioners during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance? Did people truly believe in magic? The answers might surprise you.
Read on to find out the truth about medieval magic.
The mysterious history of medieval magic, wizards, and sorcerers
A true account of Europe's arcane arts
LIFESTYLE Occult
We've all heard countless stories of wizards (who were born as mere mortals but learned magic) and sorcerers (who were born with magic but had to learn to master it). Both were figures shut away in dark towers conducting arcane experiments, bringing objects to life and hexing their enemies. Pointy hats, magical staffs, enchantment scrolls—all these things are hearty food for the imagination, and most believe it ends there. But were there really magical practitioners during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance? Did people truly believe in magic? The answers might surprise you.
Read on to find out the truth about medieval magic.